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Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy that embraced verificationism, an approach that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse on a basis shared with the best examples of empirical sciences. In this theory of knowledge, only statements verifiable either logically or empirically would be cognitively meaningful. Seeking to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy was aimed to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims.[1] The Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism starting in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein s philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell s logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic as well as Russell s logical atomism, Ernst Mach s phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman s musings that others proclaimed as operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysic, emotive, or such—not candidate to further review by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge. Logical positivism became famed for vigorous scientific antirealism to purge science of talk about nature s unobservable aspects—including causality, mechanism, and principles—although that goal has been exaggerated[who said this?]. Still, talk of such unobservables would be metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics of physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth. In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many had replaced Mach s phenomenalism with Neurath s physicalism, and Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II s close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted, most trenchantly by W V O Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel. Contents [hide] 1 Roots 1.1 Language 1.2 Logicism 1.3 Empiricism 2 Origins 2.1 Vienna 2.2 Berlin 2.3 Rivals 2.4 Export 3 Principles 3.1 Analytic/synthetic gap 3.2 Observation/theory gap 3.3 Cognitive meaningfulness 3.3.1 Verification 3.3.2 Confirmation 3.3.3 Weak verification 4 Philosophy of science 4.1 Explanation 4.2 Unity of science 4.3 Theory reduction 5 Critics 5.1 Quine 5.2 Hanson 5.3 Popper 5.4 Kuhn 5.5 Putnam 6 Retrospect 7 Footnotes 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Roots[edit] Language[edit] Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. Tractatus adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Wittgenstein s influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle.[6][7] In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein s interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found Tractatus to contain much metaphysics.[8] Logicism[edit] Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their monumental Principia Mathematica, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical posivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.[9] (Carnap s early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell s theory of types.)[10] Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.[9] Yet Kurt Gödel s incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski s undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.[9] Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap s 1934 work Logische Syntax der Sprache (Logical Syntax of Language).[9] Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.[9] Empiricism[edit] In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism.[11] Starting in the late 19th century, there was "back to Kant" movement. Ernst Mach s positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence. Origins[edit] Vienna[edit] The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap s 1928 book Der logische Aufbau der Welt—that is, The Logical Structure of the World—which became Vienna Circle s "bible", Aufbau. A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle s positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition". Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.[12] A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism s basis.[12] A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism.[12] As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.[12] Berlin[edit] The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichenbach. Rivals[edit] Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl s phenomenology. Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences".[13] Despite its revolutionary aims, logical positivism was but one view among many vying within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their language.[13] Export[edit] As the movement s first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered at the University, reportedly by a deranged student, in 1936.[13] That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A J Ayer saw his Language, Truth and Logic, written in English, import logical positivism to the Anglosphere. By then, Nazi political party s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.[13] In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.[13] Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap s protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.[13] Upon Germany s annexation of Austria in 1939, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the Anglosphere. Principles[edit] Analytic/synthetic gap[edit] Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the analytic is true via terms arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency. In 1739, Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.[14][15] By Hume s fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, a priori), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, a posteriori).[14] At any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion".[14] Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", Kant quested to answer Hume s challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume s fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic a priori, statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience space, time, and substance. Thus, Kant saved Newton s law of universal gravitation from Hume s problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be a priori knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant s synthethic a priori, and staked Hume s fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and a priori (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and a posteriori (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).[14] Observation/theory gap[edit] Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.[12] Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.[12] (Carnap also provides an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.)[12] Cognitive meaningfulness[edit] Verification[edit] The logical positivists initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.[16] By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were cognitively meaningful. Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found cognitively meaningless. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.[17] Cognitive meaningfulness was variously defined having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; naming a proposition; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.[18] Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume s law, the principle that is statements cannot justify ought statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A J Ayer s 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions. Confirmation[edit] In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced verification with confirmation, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.[12] Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide and account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model.[19] In Carnap s inductive logic, every universal law s degree of confirmation is always zero.[19] In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).[12] Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.[20] Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation. Weak verification[edit] The second edition of A J Ayer s book arrived in 1946, and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".[21] And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis".[21] Thus, all are open to weak verification. Philosophy of science[edit] Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and removed from philosophy rivials for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger s "existential hermeneutics"—while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.[1] No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new scientific philosophy, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, philosophy of science.[1] Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.[22] Explanation[edit] Comtean positivism had viewed science as description, whereas the logical positivists posed science as explanation, perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics.[23] The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model).[24] Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".[24] In DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the explanandum—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the explanans.[25] Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.[25] Thus, given initial conditions C1, C2 . . . Cn plus general laws L1, L2 . . . Ln, event E is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.[25] In DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—If A, then B—and has empirical content testable.[26] (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet—a law suggests what must be true,[27] and is consequent of a scientific theory s axiomatic structure.[28]) By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequence of events, not cause and effect—as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable—DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event A and then always event B.[23] Hempel s explication of DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.[25] In later articles, Hempel defended DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).[25] DN model and IS model together form covering law model,[25] as named by a critic, William Dray.[29] (Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).)[30] Georg Hendrik von Wright, another critic, named it subsumption theory,[31] fitting the ambition of theory reduction. Unity of science[edit] Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath s phrase, a "universal slang" whereby which all scientific propositions could be expressed.[32] The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap s Logical Structure of the World (1928)). Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive relationships (as in Carnap s "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. Theory reduction[edit] As in Comptean positivism s envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation. And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science. Critics[edit] After the Second World War s close in 1945, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism. It was clear that empirical claims cannot be verified to be universally true.[12] Thus, as initially stated, the verifiability criterion made universal statements meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which would pose significant problems for science.[20][33][34] These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap s move to confirmation, Ayer s acceptance of weak verification—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as selfcontradictory.[35] The verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.[35] Notable critics were Nelson Goodman, Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, J L Austin, Peter Strawson, Hilary Putnam, Ludwig von Mises, and Richard Rorty. Quine[edit] Although quite empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper "Two dogmas of empiricism",[36] which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume s fork, both necessity and apriocity. Quine s ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker s conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology. Hanson[edit] In 1958, Norwood Hanson s Patterns of Discovery undermined the division of observation versus theory,[37] as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory. Popper[edit] An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book Logik der Forschung, arriving in English in 1959 as The Logic of Scientific Discovery, directly answered verificationism. Popper heeded the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible.[38] And the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon s capacity to host over one logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not meaningful from meaningless but simply scientific from unscientific—a label not in itself unfavorable. Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science s quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory s falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory. Popper s scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which finds that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. Falsificationism finds science s aim as corroboration of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Explicitly denying the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper developed the general epistemology critical rationalism, which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures and refutations. Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement, driving evolution of human understanding, but claimed that he had "killed positivism". Kuhn[edit] With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (Actually, even in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat that scientists must rebuild at sea[citation needed].) Although Kuhn s thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn s critics agreed. Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn s book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic s formal language, was written in natural language open to the laypersons.[39] Ironically, Kuhn s book was first published in a volume of Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.[39] Kuhn s ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,[39] and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences,[22] ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.[39] Putnam[edit] The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules".[11] According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.[40] Putnam s four objections Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observation term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observation terms. With Carnap s classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observation terms. Reports of observation terms frequently contain theoretical terms. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is Darwin s original theory of evolution). Putman also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory s ability to garner knowledge about nature s unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory as but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism s decline. Retrospect[edit] By the late 1960s, the neopositivist movement had clearly run its course.[41] Interviewed in the late 1970s, A J Ayer supposed that "the most important" defect "was that nearly all of it was false".[42][43] Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism,[44] Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science[13] where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era postpositivism.[39] John Passmore found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".[42] Logical positivism s fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).[45][46] Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of it.[47] Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.[48] Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.[48] In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the Anglosphere, and returned Britain to empiricism. Minus logical positivists, tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.[13] Footnotes[edit] ^ Jump up to a b c Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv. Jump up ^ See "Vienna Circle" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jump up ^ Smith, L.D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366. The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950 s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation. Jump up ^ Bunge, M.A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN 9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d Alembert, Compte, John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. Jump up ^ "Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism". 7 August 2000. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper s "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end. Jump up ^ For example, compare "Proposition 4.024" of Tractatus, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick s asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". Jump up ^ "Positivismus und realismus", Erkenntnis 3 1–31, English trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, Logical Empiricism at its Peak Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath (New York Garland Publishing, 1996), p 38. Jump up ^ For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises". ^ Jump up to a b c d e Jaako Hintikka, "Logicism", in Andrew D Irvine, ed, Philosophy of Mathematics (Burlington MA North Holland, 2009), pp 283–84. Jump up ^ See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination Of metaphysics through logical analysis of language", Erkenntnis, 1932;2, reprinted in Logical Positivism, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, (New York Free Press, 1959), pp 60–81. ^ Jump up to a b Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed, (New York Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 16-24. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h i j Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia 1. Taylor Francis. p. 83. ISBN 9780415939270. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge U P, 1999), p xii. ^ Jump up to a b c d Antony G Flew, A Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York St Martin s Press, 1984), "Hume s fork", p 156. Jump up ^ Helen B Mitchell, Roots of Wisdom A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions, 6th edn (Boston Wadsworth, 2011), "Hume s fork and logical positivism", pp 249-50. Jump up ^ For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning", Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 1950;41 41-63. Jump up ^ See Moritz Schlick, "The future Of philosophy", in The Linguistic Turn, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp 43-53. Jump up ^ Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler s Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer s Language, Truth, and Logic, Schlick s "Positivism and realism" (reprinted in Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap s Philosophy and Logical Syntax. ^ Jump up to a b Mauro Murzi "Rudolf Carnap (1891—1970)", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 12 Apr 2001. ^ Jump up to a b Fetzer, James (2012). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Carl Hempel". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2012 ed.). It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were tied together by the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two dogmas of empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel s critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel s study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel s four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel s covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation". ^ Jump up to a b Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, p 50–51. ^ Jump up to a b Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 546. ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—sec 1 "Background and introduction", in Zalta EN, ed,The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b c d e f Suppe, Structure of Scientific Theories (U Illinois P, 1977), pp 619–21. Jump up ^ Eleonora Montuschi, Objects in Social Science (London New York Continuum, 2003), pp 61–62. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p 25. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), pp 27–28. Jump up ^ Georg Hendrik von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (Ithaca NY Cornell University Press, 1971), p 11. Jump up ^ Stuart Glennan, p 276, in Sarkar S Pfeifer J, eds, The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 A–M (New York Routledge, 2006). Jump up ^ Manfred Riedel, pp 3–4, in Manninen J Tuomela R, eds, Essays on Explanation and Understanding Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences (Dordrecht D Reidel Publishing, 1976). Jump up ^ For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold, "The large-scale structure of logical empiricism Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics". Jump up ^ John Vicker (2011). Edward N Zalta, ed. "The problem of induction". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 ed.). This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation. Jump up ^ Uebel, Thomas (2008). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Vienna Circle". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). What Carnap later called the "liberalization of empiricism" was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap s 1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein s own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936-37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation of disconfirmation. Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap s focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap s new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims? ^ Jump up to a b Hilary Putnam (1985). Philosophical Papers Volume 3, Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521313940. LCCN lc82012903. Jump up ^ W V O Quine, "Two dogmas of empiricism", Philosophical Review 1951;60 20-43, collected in Quine, From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, 1953). Jump up ^ Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 527. Jump up ^ Popper then denies that science requires inductive inference or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha, The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction (NY OUP, 2002), p 23]. ^ Jump up to a b c d e Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), pp 526-27. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "Problems with the observational/theoretical distinction", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed (New York, USA Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 25-29. Jump up ^ Nicholas G Fotion (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford Oxford University Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-19-866132-0. ^ Jump up to a b Hanfling, Oswald (2003). "Logical Positivism". Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f. Jump up ^ "Ayer on Logical Positivism Section 4". 6 30. Jump up ^ Stahl et al, Webs of Reality (Rutgers U P, 2002), p 180. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed, Scientific Realism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London University of California Press, 1984), p 140. Jump up ^ Ruth Lane, "Positivism, scientific realism and political science Recent developments in the philosophy of science", Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1996 Jul8(3) 361-82, abstract. Jump up ^ Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 1. ^ Jump up to a b Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 2.
https://w.atwiki.jp/oper/pages/1507.html
AKT II U Miecznika. Duża komnata do połowy drzewem wyłożona. Z lewej komin, na którym spory ogień, wgłębi drzwi główne, z prawej drzwi do dalszych komnat. SCENA l Jadwiga, Hanna, domownice i sąsiadki siedzą u krosien zajęte wyszywaniem kobierca. W głębi kilka wiejskich dziewcząt przędzie na kołowrotkach. Chór Spod igiełek kwiaty rosną, Mknie za ściegiem ścieg, Żałuj, żałuj hoża wiosno, Że cię tuli śnieg! Zanim niebu się ukorzy Twój kobierzec z róż, My pod stopy Matki Bożej Nasz złożymy już. Nim wiosenne przyjdą dary Mnóstwo młodych par, Na bławatkach tej ofiary Serc zamienią dar. Hanna, Jadwiga i młode panienki między sobą Wiesz co? nim zwabi gości zmrok, Mam myśl... wszak jutro Nowy Rok, W takiego wilię święta, Badają dziewczęta, Jakiego ptaszka spęta Serdeczna ich sieć? do starszych niewiast Już czas! za chwilę padnie zmrok, Niech nasz znużony spocznie wzrok. Pamiętać też należy, Że dziś na wieczerzy, Myśliwych dość młodzieży Będziemy tu mieć! Starsze niewiasty Ciężko, ciężko wam przy igle, Toćże jeszcze kawał dnia, Ale komu w głowie figle, O robotę ani dba! Hanna, Jadwiga i inne dziewczęta siadają na powrót do krosien. Wszystkie Spod igiełek kwiaty rosną, Żwawo mknie za ściegiem ścieg, Żałuj, żałuj hoża wiosno, Że cię tuli śnieg! Zanim niebu się ukorzy Twój kobierzec z róż, My pod stopy Matki Bożej Nasz złożymy już. Nim wiosenne przyjdą dary Mnóstwo młodych par, Na bławatkach tej ofiary Serc zamienią dar. Hanna, Jadwiga i dziewczęta Ej dość! wnet gości zwabi zmrok, Ej dość! wszak jutro Nowy Rok. Już dość! niedługo schyłek dnia, Niech więc odpocznie praca ta. Starsze niewiasty Ciężko, ciężko wam przy igle, Toć że jeszcze kawał dnia, Ale komu w głowie figle, O robotę ani dba! Wszystkie zabierając się znowu do pracy Spod igiełek kwiaty rosną, Żwawo mknie za ściegiem ścieg, Żałuj, żałuj hoża wiosno, Że cię tuli śnieg! Zanim niebu się ukorzy Twój kobierzec z róż, My pod stopy Matki Bożej Nasz złożymy już. Nim wiosenne przyjdą dary Mnóstwo młodych par, Na bławatkach tej ofiary Serc zamienią dar, Jadwiga wesoło wstając od krosien Dosyć tej pracy, nim wszyscy pobieżą, Zastawiać stoły dla ojcowskich gości, Poświęćmy chwilkę jeszcze przed wieczerzą, Na jedną z naszych najważniejszych trosk. Uchylmy wróżbą zasłonę przyszłości, Żwawo dziewczęta, przynieście tu wosk! Podczas śpiewu Jadwigi starsze niewiasty odstawiają krosna i chowają robotę. Dziewczęta wynoszą kołowrotki, po czym przynoszą wosk, tygielek i rozniecają większy ogień w kominie. Starsze niewiasty przypatrują się z uśmiechem tym przygotowaniom, bo niektóre wróżby pomagają młodym. Hanna wychodzi na prawo. Jadwiga Biegnie słuchać w lasy, w knieje, Dziewczę gdyby kwiat, Z której strony wiatr powieje, Z tej przybędzie swat. Z której strony, drzew korony, Skłonią listki swe, Z tej za swatem narzeczony Wkrótce zjawi się!Stoi dziewczę nad strumieniem, Wierzy we wróżby cud, Drobną nóżką z serca drżeniem Mąci kryształ wód. Czyją postać w mętnej fali Ujrzy w chwili tej, Ten z pewnością w rok najdalej Będzie mężem jej! Czemuż we mnie także trwoga Przed wróżbami tkwi, Wiem że przyszłość w ręku Boga, Jednak serce drży! Może grzech, kto prawo rości Czytać z tajnych kart? Lecz niewinnej ciekawości Bóg przebaczy żart. SCENA 2 Kobiety, Hanna i Damazy, Damazy wnosząc za Hanną porcelanową salaterkę pełną wody Gdzie postawić to naczynie? Hanna Tutaj, tutaj przy kominie! Wosk topnieje, spiesz pan, spiesz! Damazy postawiwszy salaterkę, do Jadwigi Czy i pani wróżby chcesz? Hanna wesoło Ja najpierwsza. Damazy Ale na co, Trudzić rączki próżną pracą? Gdy bez wróżby prawda szczera, Że masz we mnie kawalera. Wszak od świtu aż do zmroku, Jam przy tobie, tak jak cień! Hanna z niechęcią Gdybym rzekła słówko jedno, Panicz byłby u mych stóp. Lecz na próżno duszę biedną Stawia w szranki ciężkich prób. Damazy Na co wróżby? słówko jedno, A upadnę do twych stóp. Pociesz wzrokiem duszę biedną, A za tydzień weźmiem ślub! Hanna wesoło, ukazując na kawalera Nim uwieńczę twe nadzieje, Niech pan pilnie okiem szuka. Jeśli z wosku się uleje Pański fraczek i peruka, Wtedy miłość twą ocenię. Z ciężkim losem zgodzę się, Jeśli każe przeznaczenie, Weźmiesz posag mój... i mnie! Damazy spoglądając na salaterkę Jakąż silą, jakąż sztuką Spełnić to, co pragnie serce, Aj peruko! aj peruko! Pokażże się w salaterce. Niechaj obraz mojej twarzy, Niech się cały zmienię w wosk, Niech się w tyglu raz usmaży, Zakończenie moich trosk! Hanna Gdy obrazu pańskiej twarzy Naśladowcą będzie wosk, Tobie szczęście los nadarzy, Ja rozpocznę życie trosk! SCENA 3 Ci sami i Miecznik. Miecznik wchodząc z prawej Ślicznie, jak widzę dziewczęta moje, Pomnąc, że jutro jest Nowy Rok, Pragną się wedrzeć w losów podwoje, Przeniknąć wróżbą przyszłości zmrok. Lecz zwyczaj każe aż o północy. Hanna ściskając ojca Ciekawość wszystko uprzedzić chce! Miecznik spostrzegając Damazego A! Pan Damazy! Damazy Ja do pomocy. Miecznik z uśmiechem Więc i ja także przypatrzę się! Jadwiga miesza wosk w tygielku, Hanna przysuwa salaterkę z wodą. Inne osoby otaczają je ciekawie. Hanna, Jadwiga i chór Już ogień płonie, Ku naszej stronie Padają skry. W piersi koleją, Strachem, nadzieją Serduszko drży. W tyglu się pieni, Zaciekawienie Wstrzymują głos. Dziewczę zobaczy, Co jej przeznaczy Kapryśny los! Hanna wylewa wosk roztopiony na wodę, po czym stawia na stoliku salaterkę. Wszyscy z ciekawością otaczają stolik, Miecznik zbliża się także ze śmiechem. Chór kobiet Patrz, to szyszak, to przyłbica, Tylko piór nad nimi brak, Tutaj tarcza, tu zbroica! Damazy zaglądając Mnie się zdaje, że to frak! Chór kobiet pokazując Tu kopytem koń uderza, Koń przy dębie, bo to dąb! do Hanny z uciechą Pójdzie panna za rycerza! Pójdzie za pięknego, Wnet swatowie ją oblegą, Jak powojów kłąb! Damazy odchodząc od stolika i składając ręce z rozpaczą A peruki ani w ząb! Miecznik biorąc na stronę Damazego Słyszysz wróżby tej wyrazy, “Za rycerza”, to mi zięć! Płacz serdeńko, płacz Damazy, Pójdzie z kwitkiem twoja chęć! Chór kobiet Podczas rozmowy Miecznika z Damazym wstawiły powtórnie do ognia wosk, który tym razem Jadwiga miesza w tygielku. Już ogień płonie, Ku naszej stronie Padają skry. W piersi koleją, Strachem, nadzieją Serduszko drży. W tyglu się pieni, Zaciekawienie Wstrzymują głos. Dziewczę zobaczy, Co jej przeznaczy Kapryśny los! Jadwiga wylewa wosk na wodę, wszyscy przyglądają się ulanym grupkom. Chór kobiet Patrzcie, chatka, tu stodoły, I znów pancerz taki sam. Tu dwie kosy, Tu dwa woły. Damazy zaglądając Czy mnie czasem nie ma tam? Chór Karabela i płużyca, Łatwo wróżbę wysnuć stąd. Do Jadwigi Pójdzie panna za szlachcica! Damazy ze smutkiem A Damazy pójdzie w kąt! Chór Pójdzie panna za szlachcica, Za gospodarnego. Wnet swatowie tu nadbiegną, Jak potoku prąd. Wszyscy jeszcze rozpatrują się w udanych wróżbach. Miecznik Bawić się, jak chcemy możem, Wróżb spełnienie, rzadki traf, Nasze losy w ręku Bożym, W miłosierdziu jego praw! Do Damazego, który się przybliżył w tej chwili do Miecznika. Lecz jeżeliś usnuł w głowie, Że Hanusię złowisz w sieć, Powiem waści w krótkim słowie, Jakich zięciów pragnę mieć! Młode dziewczęta kolejno wylewają wosk przy kominie. Jadwiga, Hanna, Damazy i starsze niewiasty otaczają Miecznika. Miecznik Kto z mych dziewek serce której, W cnych afektów plącze nić, By uwieńczyć swe konkury, Musi dzielnym człekiem być. Piękną duszę i postawę, Niechaj wszyscy dojrzą w nim, Śmiałe oko, serce prawe, Musi splatać w jeden rym. Musi cnót posiadać wiele, Kochać Boga, kochać lud, Tęgo krzesać w karabelę, Grzmieć z gwintówki gdyby z nut! Mieć w miłości kraj ojczysty, Być odważnym jako lew, Dla swej ziemi macierzystej, Na skinienie oddać krew. Niech mu będzie chęć nieznana, Lżyć obyczaj stary swój, Niech kontusza ni żupana, Nie zamienia w obcy strój! Z przycinkiem, patrząc na Damazego Kto nie przyjdzie w sercu taki, Kto za fraczek oddał pas, W domu tym na koperczaki, Nadaremnie straci czas! Przy końcu śpiewu Miecznika dziewczęta kończą wróżby i uprzątając przyrządy oddalają się, jedne w głąb, drugie na prawo, tak że na scenie zostają tylko główne osoby. Hanna i Jadwiga po skończonym śpiewie, okrywają ojca pieszczotami. Miecznik słuchając dzwonków od sań nieco wgłębi Ktoś zajeżdża na podwórze, Łaska Boga, nowy gość! Otwiera drzwi w głębi. AKT II U Miecznika. Duża komnata do połowy drzewem wyłożona. Z lewej komin, na którym spory ogień, wgłębi drzwi główne, z prawej drzwi do dalszych komnat. SCENA l Jadwiga, Hanna, domownice i sąsiadki siedzą u krosien zajęte wyszywaniem kobierca. W głębi kilka wiejskich dziewcząt przędzie na kołowrotkach. Chór Spod igiełek kwiaty rosną, Mknie za ściegiem ścieg, Żałuj, żałuj hoża wiosno, Że cię tuli śnieg! Zanim niebu się ukorzy Twój kobierzec z róż, My pod stopy Matki Bożej Nasz złożymy już. Nim wiosenne przyjdą dary Mnóstwo młodych par, Na bławatkach tej ofiary Serc zamienią dar. Hanna, Jadwiga i młode panienki między sobą Wiesz co? nim zwabi gości zmrok, Mam myśl... wszak jutro Nowy Rok, W takiego wilię święta, Badają dziewczęta, Jakiego ptaszka spęta Serdeczna ich sieć? do starszych niewiast Już czas! za chwilę padnie zmrok, Niech nasz znużony spocznie wzrok. Pamiętać też należy, Że dziś na wieczerzy, Myśliwych dość młodzieży Będziemy tu mieć! Starsze niewiasty Ciężko, ciężko wam przy igle, Toćże jeszcze kawał dnia, Ale komu w głowie figle, O robotę ani dba! Hanna, Jadwiga i inne dziewczęta siadają na powrót do krosien. Wszystkie Spod igiełek kwiaty rosną, Żwawo mknie za ściegiem ścieg, Żałuj, żałuj hoża wiosno, Że cię tuli śnieg! Zanim niebu się ukorzy Twój kobierzec z róż, My pod stopy Matki Bożej Nasz złożymy już. Nim wiosenne przyjdą dary Mnóstwo młodych par, Na bławatkach tej ofiary Serc zamienią dar. Hanna, Jadwiga i dziewczęta Ej dość! wnet gości zwabi zmrok, Ej dość! wszak jutro Nowy Rok. Już dość! niedługo schyłek dnia, Niech więc odpocznie praca ta. Starsze niewiasty Ciężko, ciężko wam przy igle, Toć że jeszcze kawał dnia, Ale komu w głowie figle, O robotę ani dba! Wszystkie zabierając się znowu do pracy Spod igiełek kwiaty rosną, Żwawo mknie za ściegiem ścieg, Żałuj, żałuj hoża wiosno, Że cię tuli śnieg! Zanim niebu się ukorzy Twój kobierzec z róż, My pod stopy Matki Bożej Nasz złożymy już. Nim wiosenne przyjdą dary Mnóstwo młodych par, Na bławatkach tej ofiary Serc zamienią dar, Jadwiga wesoło wstając od krosien Dosyć tej pracy, nim wszyscy pobieżą, Zastawiać stoły dla ojcowskich gości, Poświęćmy chwilkę jeszcze przed wieczerzą, Na jedną z naszych najważniejszych trosk. Uchylmy wróżbą zasłonę przyszłości, Żwawo dziewczęta, przynieście tu wosk! Podczas śpiewu Jadwigi starsze niewiasty odstawiają krosna i chowają robotę. Dziewczęta wynoszą kołowrotki, po czym przynoszą wosk, tygielek i rozniecają większy ogień w kominie. Starsze niewiasty przypatrują się z uśmiechem tym przygotowaniom, bo niektóre wróżby pomagają młodym. Hanna wychodzi na prawo. Jadwiga Biegnie słuchać w lasy, w knieje, Dziewczę gdyby kwiat, Z której strony wiatr powieje, Z tej przybędzie swat. Z której strony, drzew korony, Skłonią listki swe, Z tej za swatem narzeczony Wkrótce zjawi się!Stoi dziewczę nad strumieniem, Wierzy we wróżby cud, Drobną nóżką z serca drżeniem Mąci kryształ wód. Czyją postać w mętnej fali Ujrzy w chwili tej, Ten z pewnością w rok najdalej Będzie mężem jej! Czemuż we mnie także trwoga Przed wróżbami tkwi, Wiem że przyszłość w ręku Boga, Jednak serce drży! Może grzech, kto prawo rości Czytać z tajnych kart? Lecz niewinnej ciekawości Bóg przebaczy żart. SCENA 2 Kobiety, Hanna i Damazy, Damazy wnosząc za Hanną porcelanową salaterkę pełną wody Gdzie postawić to naczynie? Hanna Tutaj, tutaj przy kominie! Wosk topnieje, spiesz pan, spiesz! Damazy postawiwszy salaterkę, do Jadwigi Czy i pani wróżby chcesz? Hanna wesoło Ja najpierwsza. Damazy Ale na co, Trudzić rączki próżną pracą? Gdy bez wróżby prawda szczera, Że masz we mnie kawalera. Wszak od świtu aż do zmroku, Jam przy tobie, tak jak cień! Hanna z niechęcią Gdybym rzekła słówko jedno, Panicz byłby u mych stóp. Lecz na próżno duszę biedną Stawia w szranki ciężkich prób. Damazy Na co wróżby? słówko jedno, A upadnę do twych stóp. Pociesz wzrokiem duszę biedną, A za tydzień weźmiem ślub! Hanna wesoło, ukazując na kawalera Nim uwieńczę twe nadzieje, Niech pan pilnie okiem szuka. Jeśli z wosku się uleje Pański fraczek i peruka, Wtedy miłość twą ocenię. Z ciężkim losem zgodzę się, Jeśli każe przeznaczenie, Weźmiesz posag mój... i mnie! Damazy spoglądając na salaterkę Jakąż silą, jakąż sztuką Spełnić to, co pragnie serce, Aj peruko! aj peruko! Pokażże się w salaterce. Niechaj obraz mojej twarzy, Niech się cały zmienię w wosk, Niech się w tyglu raz usmaży, Zakończenie moich trosk! Hanna Gdy obrazu pańskiej twarzy Naśladowcą będzie wosk, Tobie szczęście los nadarzy, Ja rozpocznę życie trosk! SCENA 3 Ci sami i Miecznik. Miecznik wchodząc z prawej Ślicznie, jak widzę dziewczęta moje, Pomnąc, że jutro jest Nowy Rok, Pragną się wedrzeć w losów podwoje, Przeniknąć wróżbą przyszłości zmrok. Lecz zwyczaj każe aż o północy. Hanna ściskając ojca Ciekawość wszystko uprzedzić chce! Miecznik spostrzegając Damazego A! Pan Damazy! Damazy Ja do pomocy. Miecznik z uśmiechem Więc i ja także przypatrzę się! Jadwiga miesza wosk w tygielku, Hanna przysuwa salaterkę z wodą. Inne osoby otaczają je ciekawie. Hanna, Jadwiga i chór Już ogień płonie, Ku naszej stronie Padają skry. W piersi koleją, Strachem, nadzieją Serduszko drży. W tyglu się pieni, Zaciekawienie Wstrzymują głos. Dziewczę zobaczy, Co jej przeznaczy Kapryśny los! Hanna wylewa wosk roztopiony na wodę, po czym stawia na stoliku salaterkę. Wszyscy z ciekawością otaczają stolik, Miecznik zbliża się także ze śmiechem. Chór kobiet Patrz, to szyszak, to przyłbica, Tylko piór nad nimi brak, Tutaj tarcza, tu zbroica! Damazy zaglądając Mnie się zdaje, że to frak! Chór kobiet pokazując Tu kopytem koń uderza, Koń przy dębie, bo to dąb! do Hanny z uciechą Pójdzie panna za rycerza! Pójdzie za pięknego, Wnet swatowie ją oblegą, Jak powojów kłąb! Damazy odchodząc od stolika i składając ręce z rozpaczą A peruki ani w ząb! Miecznik biorąc na stronę Damazego Słyszysz wróżby tej wyrazy, “Za rycerza”, to mi zięć! Płacz serdeńko, płacz Damazy, Pójdzie z kwitkiem twoja chęć! Chór kobiet Podczas rozmowy Miecznika z Damazym wstawiły powtórnie do ognia wosk, który tym razem Jadwiga miesza w tygielku. Już ogień płonie, Ku naszej stronie Padają skry. W piersi koleją, Strachem, nadzieją Serduszko drży. W tyglu się pieni, Zaciekawienie Wstrzymują głos. Dziewczę zobaczy, Co jej przeznaczy Kapryśny los! Jadwiga wylewa wosk na wodę, wszyscy przyglądają się ulanym grupkom. Chór kobiet Patrzcie, chatka, tu stodoły, I znów pancerz taki sam. Tu dwie kosy, Tu dwa woły. Damazy zaglądając Czy mnie czasem nie ma tam? Chór Karabela i płużyca, Łatwo wróżbę wysnuć stąd. Do Jadwigi Pójdzie panna za szlachcica! Damazy ze smutkiem A Damazy pójdzie w kąt! Chór Pójdzie panna za szlachcica, Za gospodarnego. Wnet swatowie tu nadbiegną, Jak potoku prąd. Wszyscy jeszcze rozpatrują się w udanych wróżbach. Miecznik Bawić się, jak chcemy możem, Wróżb spełnienie, rzadki traf, Nasze losy w ręku Bożym, W miłosierdziu jego praw! Do Damazego, który się przybliżył w tej chwili do Miecznika. Lecz jeżeliś usnuł w głowie, Że Hanusię złowisz w sieć, Powiem waści w krótkim słowie, Jakich zięciów pragnę mieć! Młode dziewczęta kolejno wylewają wosk przy kominie. Jadwiga, Hanna, Damazy i starsze niewiasty otaczają Miecznika. Miecznik Kto z mych dziewek serce której, W cnych afektów plącze nić, By uwieńczyć swe konkury, Musi dzielnym człekiem być. Piękną duszę i postawę, Niechaj wszyscy dojrzą w nim, Śmiałe oko, serce prawe, Musi splatać w jeden rym. Musi cnót posiadać wiele, Kochać Boga, kochać lud, Tęgo krzesać w karabelę, Grzmieć z gwintówki gdyby z nut! Mieć w miłości kraj ojczysty, Być odważnym jako lew, Dla swej ziemi macierzystej, Na skinienie oddać krew. Niech mu będzie chęć nieznana, Lżyć obyczaj stary swój, Niech kontusza ni żupana, Nie zamienia w obcy strój! Z przycinkiem, patrząc na Damazego Kto nie przyjdzie w sercu taki, Kto za fraczek oddał pas, W domu tym na koperczaki, Nadaremnie straci czas! Przy końcu śpiewu Miecznika dziewczęta kończą wróżby i uprzątając przyrządy oddalają się, jedne w głąb, drugie na prawo, tak że na scenie zostają tylko główne osoby. Hanna i Jadwiga po skończonym śpiewie, okrywają ojca pieszczotami. Miecznik słuchając dzwonków od sań nieco wgłębi Ktoś zajeżdża na podwórze, Łaska Boga, nowy gość! Otwiera drzwi w głębi. Moniuszko,Stanisław/Straszny dwór/II-2
https://w.atwiki.jp/xboxonescore/pages/1042.html
Hexologic(六方論理） 項目数：11 総ポイント：1000 難易度：★☆☆☆☆ 難易度をHardに切り替えて回答を見ながら埋めていくだけ。 1時間程度でコンプ可能。 回答サイト https //steamcommunity.com/sharedfiles/filedetails/?id=1532489028 Hex Master Complete 90 basic levels 90 Ocean Master Complete underwater special levels 90 Jungle Master Complete special jungle levels 90 Desert Master Complete special desert levels 90 Sky Master Complete special sky levels 90 Secret Master Complete all secret sky levels 90 Hex Emperor Complete 90 basic and 21 special levels 90 Hard Mode Master Complete 90 basic levels in hard mode 90 Hard Mode Totems Master Complete 90 basic and 21 special levels in hard mode 90 Space Master Complete cosmic special levels 90 Forbidden Planet Master Complete special levels of Forbidden Planet 100
https://w.atwiki.jp/2chshotbowwiki/pages/27.html
Archaeological Dig Site Archaeological Dig Site #ref error ：ご指定のファイルが見つかりません。ファイル名を確認して、再度指定してください。 (archdig_render.png) The remnants of an Archaeological Dig Site, close to Bazel. The site consists of a few supply tents, a near ruined pyramid structure that has a water source and a couple of half buried Ruins. You will find people stocking up here when heading north. It is also a important place as it supplies food. General Info 座標 (1450, -1130) Area Type Camp Number of Buildings 5 ゾンビの湧き率 Medium Number of Chests 3 墓(苔石) None General Resources 水源 ✔ 作業台 X 農場 X ポーション台 X Civilian Loot Common Chests X Uncommon Chests X Food Loot Common Chests X Uncommon Chests 1 Rare Chests X Potion Loot Common Chests X Uncommon Chests X Rare Chests X Tool Loot Common Chests 2 Uncommon Chests X Military Loot Common Chests X Uncommon Chests X Rare Chests X Epic Chests X Mythic Chests X Room Loot Common Chests X Uncommon Chests X Rare Chests X ContentsLoot ChestsTravel Advisory/Warnings**Loot Chests(top) Large Tent1 food_uncommon Western Crypt1 tools_common Eastern Crypt1 tools_common 観光時の助言と注意(top) Not much here. Only worth the trip for the tool chests. Due to there not being much here, there aren t many people that travel here.
https://w.atwiki.jp/elpro2010/pages/13.html
「geological disposal」の編集 (@wikiモード= 編集方法はこちらをご覧ください)
https://w.atwiki.jp/nine_lives/pages/75.html
Geologist s Bag Geologist's Bagクエスト概要 ヒント クエスト概要 発注者：Seyana 位置：32b2 派生元：－ 派生先：－ Receive － Objective Geologist s Bag Rewards 30 Slot BagXP 120 Description 大切なものが入ったバッグを、そこの洞窟に落としてきてしまったの。洞窟の中は凶暴な虫たちでいっぱいで、わたしたちは逃げるだけで精いっぱいだった。あなたは、Elfの学者よりはたくましいわよね？もしわたしのバッグを見つけたら、ここへ持ってきてくれるかしら。 ヒント +Geologist s Bagはどこにあるの？ Geologist s Bagは、すぐ近くの洞窟「Insect Burrow」内部の最奥に落ちています。 ただし、一際大きなScarabが行く手を塞いでいます。倒してしまっても良いですし、Bagを拾ってそそくさと帰るのもアリです。 報告時にバッグの空きが1つ無いと報告できません。注意しましょう。
https://w.atwiki.jp/vocaloidenglishlyric/pages/442.html
【Tags Miku m@rk tT T】 Original Music title tautology Romaji music title tautology Music Lyrics written, Voice edition by m@rk Music arranged by m@rk Singer(s) 初音ミク (Hatsune Miku) Click here for the original Japanese Lyrics English Lyrics (translated by motokokusanagi2009)： (what miku sings) As the moonlight dissolves, It gently shines my hair one night The warmth running through my palms And the melody I use to be singing I got to know the world I was seeing through wasn t everything If I could have a wish come true, let me forget all the memories, please? Make me believe the false memory that "We ve never met" I m so sorry that I couldn t sing your songs forever and ever Even the reality that I exist here Keeps disappearing flawlessly The only thing I can link to the past Is the melancholic melody Me, seeing the world from here, is becoming one of the empty electrons again If I could have a wish come true, forget about me, please? Let us go back to when we were strangers to each other I m so sorry that I couldn t stay by your side forever and ever (what s written in the vid) As the moonlight dissolves, It gently shines my hair one night The warmth running through my palms And the melody I use to be singing I got to know "the world" on the screen wasn t everything If I could have a wish come true, delete my all memories, please? Overwrite virtual data "We ve never met" I m so sorry that I couldn t play your "songs" forever and ever Even the reality that I exist here Keeps disappearing flawlessly The only thing I can link to the past Is the melancholic melody "Me", displayed on the screen, is becoming one of the blank electrons again If I could have a wish come true, uninstall the program, please? Let us go back to when we were strangers to each other I m so sorry that I couldn t stay by your side forever and ever Romaji lyrics (transliterated by motokokusanagi2009)： tokeru tsuki no hikari ga yasashiku kami o terasu yoru te o tsutau ondo to utai narete ita melody mado kara mite ita sekai ga subete de nai to shitta "negai" ga kanau nara omoide o wasure sasete nisemono no kioku o ("deatte nakatta yo); tte gomen ne kimi no "uta" o zutto utae nakute ima koko ni iru jijitsu de sae nameraka ni tokeru kara tada kako to tsunagu nowa ano natsukashī melody mado kara mite iru "watashi" wa karappo na denshi ni kaeru "negai" ga kanau nara watashi no koto o wasurete ano koro ni kaeru no deau mae no futari ni gomen ne kimi no soba ni zutto irare nakute
https://w.atwiki.jp/paxbiologia/pages/18.html
Pax Biologiaとは Pax Biologiaは、埼玉大学に平成21年度、新たに設立されたサークルです。 当サークルは、生物学への興味を増進し、理解を深めることを目的としています。
https://w.atwiki.jp/v-lyrics/pages/359.html
とーとろじー [ TAG Alp-T E-Q Miku m@rk title] Music m@rk/m@rk Lyric m@rk/m@rk Arrange m@rk/m@rk Vocal Hatsune Miku Videos PVs ■ Show/Hide Video http //www.nicovideo.jp/watch/sm2394813 http //www.nicovideo.jp/watch/sm2394813 Translations ■ Show/Hide Romaji This song has two sets of lyrics, "/* inside */" lyrics and "/* outside */" lyrics. In original Japanese video, "inside" lyrics are shown as subtitles and Miku sings "outside" lyrics. In other words, "outside" are the substitution of "inside." /* inside */ tokeru tsuki no hikari ga yasashiku kami wo terasu yoru tenohira (substituted as "te") wo tsutau ondo to saisei shi narete ta merodii (melody) gamen ni utsutte ita "sekai" ga subete de nai to shitta "negai" ga kanau nara memory wo delete shite? kasou no data wo ("deatte nakatta yo"); tte gomen-ne. kimi no "uta" wo zutto saisei deki naku te genzai (substituted as "ima") koko ni iru jijitsu de sae nameraka ni tokeru kara tada kako to tsunagu no wa ano natsukashii merodii gamen ni hyouji sarete iru "watashi" wa kuukyo na denshi ni kangen sareru "negai" ga kanau nara program wo uninstall shite? ano koro ni kaeru no deau mae no futari ni gomen-ne. kimi no soba ni zutto irare nakute /* outside */ tokeru tsuki no hikari ga yasashiku kami wo terasu yoru tenohira (substituted as "te") wo tsutau ondo to utai narete ta merodii mado kara mite ita sekai ga subete de nai to shitta negai ga kanau nara omoide wo wasure sasete? nisemono no kioku wo "deatte nakatta yo" tte gomen-ne. kimi no uta wo zutto utae naku te genzai (substituted as "ima") koko ni iru jijitsu de sae nameraka ni tokeru kara tada kako to tsunagu no wa ano natsukashii merodii mado kara mite iru watashi wa karappo no denshi ni kaeru negai ga kanau nara watashi no koto wasurete? ano koro ni kaeru no deau mae no futari ni gomen-ne. kimi no soba ni zutto irare nakute 2009-07-18 Checked by damesukekun 2009-07-19 22 47 Generated automatically [部分編集] ■ Show/Hide Translation tautology 2009-07-19 First Entry 2009-07-19 23 20 09 (Sun) Last update Trasnlated by damesukekun Title tautology Lyric This song has two lyrics, "/* inside */" lyrics and "/* outside */" lyrics. In original Japanese video, subtitled lyrics are "inside," and Miku sings "outside" lyrics. In other words, "outside" are the substitution of "inside." /* inside */ A melting moonlight gently illuminates my hair There the warmth that passes my palm and familiar melody to play back I ve learned that the "world" reflected on the screen is not the all If my "wishes" were fulfilled, delete my digital memory? As if I ("hadn t met"); my virtual data Sorry. I couldn t have played back your "song" so long Even the fact melts smoothly, the fact that I m here now Only that old dear melody ties me to the past time "I," displayed on the screen, will be reduced into void electrons If my "wishes" were fulfilled, please uninstall my program? Return to those days when we were strangers each other Sorry. I m not able to stay by your side /* outside */ A melting moonlight gently illuminates my hair There the warmth that passes my palm and familiar melody to sing I ve learned that the world I was looking at through the window is not the all If my wishes were fulfilled, make me forget my remembrance? As if I "hadn t met" my false memory Sorry. I couldn t have sung your song so long Even the fact melts smoothly, the fact that I m here now Only that old dear melody ties me to the past time I, looking outside through the window, will return to empty electrons If my wishes were fulfilled, please forget me? Return to those days when we were strangers each other Sorry. I m not able to stay by your side Comment If you have any advise or opinion for this post please write here.この投稿に対して助言、ご意見などありましたらこちらに書き込んで下さい。 Name Comment すべてのコメントを見る Last modified 2009-07-19 23 20 09 (Sun) Original Lyric, Nicosound MP3, etc http //www5.atwiki.jp/hmiku/pages/897.html http //nicosound.anyap.info/sound/sm2394813 http //www.nicomimi.com/play/sm2394813 Sub video, PV, other fan made video in YouTube http //www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTUVcbC1Mag [Add] http //www.youtube.com/watch/xxxxxxxxx ADD LINK すべてのコメントを見る http //www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTUVcbC1Mag (Information in this page is based on HatsuneMiku@Wiki) _
https://w.atwiki.jp/vocaloidenglishlyric/pages/1044.html
【Tags Aether_Eru miki tF F】 Original Music title fragile snow Romaji music title fragile snow Music Lyrics written, Voice edited by Aether_Eru Music arranged by Aether_Eru Singer(s) SF-A2 miki Click here for the original Japanese Lyrics Romaji lyrics (transliterated by motokokusanagi2009)： omoi wa kanashī hodo ni itsu made mo sugata nokosu keredo futari no ashiato wa hakanaku setsunai yuki to tomo ni... kiete masshiroi konayuki ga mai orita fuyu no hi ashibaya ni yuki kau hito sakarau yōni anata wa tachi domatte sotto tsunaida te o toku utsumuki tsubuyaita kotae kiki taku nai kotoba tsujikaze kaki keshita namida ga hoho o tsutatte yuganda sekai ni nomare teku hie kitta yubisaki de ginniro koboreru kimi no kakera kiete modore nai ano hibi ga monochro ni kasanaru iro aseta machi nami ni kazarareta rinkaku shizumari kitta samuzora no shita hitori tōku todokanu oetsu morashita wasure rare nai koe kioku ga kake meguru ushinatte hajimete kizuku sugu soba ni atta shiawase o hitotose sugita ima mo kokoro wa fragile snow kimi no kage o sagashite []